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IntroductionAs robot teleoperation increasingly becomes integral in executing tasks in distant, hazardous, or inaccessible environments, operational delays remain a significant obstacle. These delays, inherent in signal transmission and processing, adversely affect operator performance, particularly in tasks requiring precision and timeliness. While current research has made strides in mitigating these delays through advanced control strategies and training methods, a crucial gap persists in understanding the neurofunctional impacts of these delays and the efficacy of countermeasures from a cognitive perspective. MethodsThis study addresses the gap by leveraging functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) to examine the neurofunctional implications of simulated haptic feedback on cognitive activity and motor coordination under delayed conditions. In a human-subject experiment (N= 41), sensory feedback was manipulated to observe its influences on various brain regions of interest (ROIs) during teleoperation tasks. The fNIRS data provided a detailed assessment of cerebral activity, particularly in ROIs implicated in time perception and the execution of precise movements. ResultsOur results reveal that the anchoring condition, which provided immediate simulated haptic feedback with a delayed visual cue, significantly optimized neural functions related to time perception and motor coordination. This condition also improved motor performance compared to the asynchronous condition, where visual and haptic feedback were misaligned. DiscussionThese findings provide empirical evidence about the neurofunctional basis of the enhanced motor performance with simulated synthetic force feedback in the presence of teleoperation delays. The study highlights the potential for immediate haptic feedback to mitigate the adverse effects of operational delays, thereby improving the efficacy of teleoperation in critical applications. 

Abstract In the realm of robotics and automation, robot teleoperation, which facilitates human–machine interaction in distant or hazardous settings, has surged in significance. A persistent issue in this domain is the delays between command issuance and action execution, causing negative repercussions on operator situational awareness, performance, and cognitive load. These delays, particularly in long-distance operations, are difficult to mitigate even with the most advanced computing advancements. Current solutions mainly revolve around machine-based adjustments to combat these delays. However, a notable lacuna remains in harnessing human perceptions for an enhanced subjective teleoperation experience. This paper introduces a novel approach of sensory manipulation for induced human adaptation in delayed teleoperation. Drawing from motor learning and rehabilitation principles, it is posited that strategic sensory manipulation, via altered sensory stimuli, can mitigate the subjective feeling of these delays. The focus is not on introducing new skills or adapting to novel conditions; rather, it leverages prior motor coordination experience in the context of delays. The objective is to reduce the need for extensive training or sophisticated automation designs. A human-centered experiment involving 41 participants was conducted to examine the effects of modified haptic cues in teleoperations with delays. These cues were generated from high-fidelity physics engines using parameters from robot-end sensors or physics engine simulations. The results underscored several benefits, notably the considerable reduction in task time and enhanced user perceptions about visual delays. Real-time haptic feedback, or the anchoring method, emerged as a significant contributor to these benefits, showcasing reduced cognitive load, bolstered self-confidence, and minimized frustration. Beyond the prevalent methods of automation design and training, this research underscores induced human adaptation as a pivotal avenue in robot teleoperation. It seeks to enhance teleoperation efficacy through rapid human adaptation, offering insights beyond just optimizing robotic systems for delay compensations. 

Plant subtilases (SBTs) or subtilisin-like proteases comprise a very diverse family of serine peptidases that participates in a broad spectrum of biological functions. Despite increasing evidence for roles of SBTs in plant immunity in recent years, little is known about wheat (Triticum aestivum) SBTs (TaSBTs). Here, we identified 255 TaSBT genes from bread wheat using the latest version 2.0 of the reference genome sequence. The SBT family can be grouped into five clades, from TaSBT1 to TaSBT5, based on a phylogenetic tree constructed with deduced protein sequences. In silico protein-domain analysis revealed the existence of considerable sequence diversification of the TaSBT family which, together with the local clustered gene distribution, suggests that TaSBT genes have undergone extensive functional diversification. Among those TaSBT genes whose expression was altered by biotic factors, TaSBT1.7 was found to be induced in wheat leaves by chitin and flg22 elicitors, as well as six examined pathogens, implying a role for TaSBT1.7 in plant defense. Transient overexpression of TaSBT1.7 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves resulted in necrotic cell death. Moreover, knocking down TaSBT1.7 in wheat using barley stripe mosaic virus-induced gene silencing compromised the hypersensitive response and resistance against Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, the causal agent of wheat stripe rust. Taken together, this study defined the full complement of wheat SBT genes and provided evidence for a positive role of one particular member, TaSBT1.7, in the incompatible interaction between wheat and a stripe rust pathogen.